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Narrator Now listen to part of a lecture from a biology class.

Professor : There’s a large tropical insect called the peanut bug—yes, like the peanuts that you eat—uh, and the peanut bug’s front wings are colored so that they blend in with their surroundings. But its back wings—which are usually closed and hidden— have these bright, colorful spots on them. And when the peanut bug’s attacked, it suddenly opens its back wings, and out pop these big, bright colors. And that surprises the predator, and gives the peanut bug a chance to get away. Um, and then you have a butterfly … called the morpho butterfly. And parts of the morpho butterfly’s wings are very shiny, they reflect a lot of sunlight; when this butterfly is resting, this shiny part of its wings is hidden … Now, morpho butterflies are often attacked by birds … So when a bird approaches, the morpho flies away … and when the morpho flaps its wings, all the bird can see are flashes of light reflected from the morpho’s wings. Those flashes of light make it very difficult for the bird to follow the morpho, and the morpho is usually able to get away.

Narrator Listen to part of a talk in a psychology class.

Male professor: I think this will help you get a picture of what your textbook is describing. I had a friend who taught in the physics department, Professor Jones, he retired last year. . . . Anyway, I remember . . . this was a few years ago . . . I remember passing by a classroom early one morning just as he was leaving, and he looked terrible: his clothes were all rumpled, and he looked like he hadn’t slept all night. And I asked if he was OK. I was surprised when he said that he never felt better, that he was totally happy. He had spent the entire night in the classroom working on a mathematics puzzle. He didn’t stop to eat dinner; he didn’t stop to sleep . . . or even rest. He was that involved in solving the puzzle. And it didn’t even have anything to do with his teaching or research; he had just come across this puzzle accidentally, I think in a mathematics journal, and it just really interested him, so he worked furiously all night and covered the blackboards in the classroom with equations and numbers and never realized that time was passing by.

Narrator Listen to part of a talk in a psychology class.

This happens all the time with kids, in schools. Say there’s a little boy or girl who’s just starting school. Well, they’re not really used to the rules about proper behavior for a classroom, so at the beginning, they might, I don’t know, interrupt the teacher, walk around the classroom when they’re supposed to be sitting down. You know, just misbehaving in general. OK, but what happens? Well, the teacher gets angry with them when they act this way. They might get punished--they have to sit at their desks when everyone else is allowed to go outside and play. And they certainly don’t like that. Soon they’ll learn that this kind of behavior gets them in trouble. They’ll also learn that when they raise their hand to talk to the teacher and sit quietly and pay attention during class... they’re rewarded. The teacher tells them she’s proud of them, and maybe puts little happy-face stickers on their homework. Now that their behavior gets a good reaction from the teacher, the kids learn to always act this way in class...and not behave the way they used to.

Narrator Now listen to part of a lecture in a business class. 

Professor Today, we’ll talk about how companies determine the initial price for their products, by that I mean, when they first introduce a product in the market. There are different approaches, and today we’ll discuss two of them. They are quite different … each with their own advantages. One approach or strategy sets the initial price of the product high, followed by a lower price at a later stage. Why? Well, … when introducing a new product, companies want to build a high-quality image for it. Products that cost more are believed to be of higher quality. So, during the early stages of the product life cycle, companies can make very high profits from consumers willing to pay more for a high quality product, and although consumers know that prices will eventually go down, they’re also willing to pay more to get the product sooner. This approach works very well with … oh … innovative, high-tech products, for example. Now just think about when video recorders, or … video cameras … or even cell phones … first came out. They were very expensive, but then they became much more accessible. Another very common strategy sets an initial price low. Now this happens when the market is already saturated with the product and the strategy is to undercut its competitors. Say, there’s a newly starting computer maker trying to gain market share. So what do they do? Well, they offer a computer at an affordable price, lower than existing brands. By doing this, the company appeals to new consumers who weren’t probably even interested in getting a computer and … well, of course … to existing consumers who might now be tempted to switch brands. Now, how does this company make profits with its low-priced computer? Well, one thing that’s often done is to encourage their customers to buy accessories also manufactured by them, like printers, or software, for example.

Narrator Listen to part of a lecture in a biology course. 

Female professor:  Human beings aren’t the only animals that use tools. It’s generally recognized that other animals use tools as well . . . use them naturally, in the wild, without any human instruction. But when can we say that an object is a tool? Well, it depends on your definition of a tool. And in fact, there are two competing definitions—a narrow definition and a broad one. The narrow definition says that a tool is an object that’s used to perform a specific task . . . but not just any object. To be a tool, according to the narrow definition, the object’s gotta be purposefully changed or shaped by the animal, or human, so that it can be used that way. It’s an object that’s made. Wild chimpanzees use sticks to dig insects out of their nests . . . but most sticks lying around won’t do the job . . . they might be too thick, for example. So the sticks have to be sharpened so they’ll fit into the hole in an ant hill or the insect nest. The chimp pulls off the leaves and chews the stick and trims it down that way until it’s the right size. The chimp doesn’t just find the stick . . . it . . . you could say it makes it in a way. But the broad definition says an object doesn’t have to be modified to be considered a tool. The broad definition says a tool is any object that’s used to perform a specific task. For example, an elephant will sometimes use a stick to scratch its back . . . it just picks up a stick from the ground and scratches its back with it . . . It doesn’t modify the stick, it uses it just as it’s found. And it’s a tool, under the broad definition, but under the narrow definition it’s not because, well, the elephant doesn’t change it in any way

Listen to part of a lecture in a business class.

Female Professor If a consumer has to choose between two products, what determines the choice?Assume that someone, a purchaser, is choosing between two products that cost the same. OK? If people have a choice between two identically priced products, which one will they choose? They choose the one they think is of higher quality, of course. But what does it mean for a product to be a high-quality product? Well, business analysts usually speak of two major factors of quality—one factor is reliability, and the other is what we call features. So, reliability. What’s reliability? Well, a product is reliable if it works the way we expect it to work, if it can go a reasonable amount of time without needing repairs. If a product, a car for example, doesn’t work the way it should and needs repairs too soon, we say it’s [stress on the first syllable] unreliable. So, product reliability means, basically, the absence of defects or problems that you weren’t expecting.[pause] It used to be that when people thought about product quality, they thought mainly about reliability. Today it’s different. People do still care about reliability, don’t get me wrong. It’s just that manufacturing standards are so now so high that, take cars for example, today, today’s cars all very reliable. So reliability is important, but it’s not gonna be the deciding factor. So, if reliability isn’t the deciding factor any more, what is? Features—all those extras, the things a product has that aren’t really necessary but that make it easier to use or that make it cool: for example, new cars today are loaded with features like electric windows, sun roofs, air conditioning, stereos, and so forth. When people are comparing products today, they look at features—because reliability’s pretty much equal cross the board. And that’s why manufacturers include so many features in their products.

Wrestling

Many of the sports which the ancient Greeks practiced and which made up a part of their own Olympics still survive in some way or other in the sports which we practice today. Their motivation, however, was for practice for war and it is in such motivation that one can understand the emphasis on martial skills such as wrestling, Pankration, boxing, the javelin and running, while still including such less directly applicable sports as discus and jumping. Overtime, as interest grew in sport and competition alone, new sports were added, but it was these core sports, which stood the test of time, and which have continued to be practiced, in similar form, right up to the present day. 

Wrestling must be regarded as the most important sport practiced in ancient Greece; the very name palaestra “wrestling school” must indicate its importance in Greek life. Nor need we be surprised at this for all over the world in cultures far-distant from each other, one can find styles of wrestling and fighting, for it is a useful skill in war. 

There was one major style of wrestling, the one that was found in ancient Greek competition, so-called upright wrestling. It is difficult to draw an accurate picture of the rules and the manner in which it was conducted, but nevertheless some conclusions can be drawn based on evidence and reasonable guesswork. 

Upright wrestling was conducted in a jumping pit-style arena, a type of round or oval building with an open space with rising seats in the middle. The aim was for one of the wrestlers to throw his opponent on to the ground so that he landed on a place such as his hip, back, or shoulder. To land on one of these areas would suggest that one has been thrown into a prone position and is, therefore, at the mercy of one’s opponent. It is not unreasonable to assume , therefore, that this was counted as a well-executed throw and might score a “point” accordingly. If both wrestlers fell together then we must assume that either no point was scored or both scored. Either way, neither competitor gained an advantage. To gain victory, in competition at least, then it appears that one of the competitors had to amass three points or correct throws. It must have been a long and tiring contest. 

While there are depictions of certain throwing techniques in art they are inevitably fail to fully explain wrestling techniques. However, it is not unreasonable to assume that such techniques were similar to techniques one might find in martial arts such as Judo or Ju-Jitsu, after all, there are only a finite number of ways that one can throw an opponent.

There is also another style of wrestling which did not exist on its own but which was part of the Pankration. In this style the struggle was continued on the ground till one or other of the combatants acknowledged defeat. For the Greeks wrestling was both as science and an art and great importance was attached to the manner in which one conducted oneself in the ring. To throw one’s opponent was not enough, it had to be done stylishly and in good style. 

While this may have been a common held view by the Greeks this in no way detracts from the physicality of the sport and thus its usefulness in training the body for the exertions of combat.  

World War II

To continue our discussion on women’s roles in our society, I want to talk about the effects of World War II on women's employment in the United States Compared to Mt. Vernon, Ohio, 1938-1948. The period commencing with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941) and ending with the completion of World War II had a great impact on women's employment in the United States. 

Prior to this period employers, government and national sentiment held that there were jobs appropriate for women and those which were inappropriate because women were not capable of fulfilling the tasks involved in such work. Propaganda reinforced these notions as the popular image of women had them, for instance, as housewives or living glamorous lives, but almost always dependent on men. The War years provided women of Mt. Vernon and the nation as a whole with an opportunity to break this trend. 

Women took this chance to prove that they were almost every bit as capable as men in the traditionally male work sphere. There were no lasting effects on women's status in the work force resulting from the War. In the War's aftermath, women returned to jobs they had held traditionally, provided they were of the working class. 

At the same time, many women who had not worked prior to the War returned to their homes and house-work. Mt. Vernon was much like many of the major war industries cities such as Detroit and San Francisco, although there were some key differences. In population size it was small. Its economy at the time was predominantly agricultural although there were three major industrial plants - Cooper-Bessemer (a producer of diesel engines), Mt. Vernon Bridge and Steel (produced Landing Ship Tanks) and Shellmar (produced protective capes and gas masks for soldiers). Factories such as these are what made Mt. Vernon similar to the major war industries cities. 

Likewise, making Mt. Vernon comparable to the rest of the nation was the role women played in such industrial work by filling in for men who left to fight. To recruit women into the labor force, propaganda in magazines, advertising, radio programming and films was used for this was the most efficient method of encouraging women to take a war job. 

Oral history provided much information about the status of women workers before, during and after the War in Mt. Vernon. Interviews with women who lived in Mt. Vernon during the period answered questions concerning womens' work status. Questions were asked about entire work histories which showed how many working class women took higher paying industrial jobs during the War after having received lower wages in other work sectors. There were also questions about domestic lives because several of the women never worked and one goal was to find out why they had not. 

The end of the War and changes it brought to Mt. Vernon's female work force was another issue probed. How did women feel about relinquishing their jobs to returning soldiers? Another aim was to learn more about how effective propaganda was. Did it have any effect at all, or was it more a subconcious matter that they could not answer (which was often the case)

Languages

We don’t ask ourselves where languages come from because they just seem to be there: French in France, English in England, Chinese in China, Japanese in Japan, and so forth. Yet if we go back only a few thousand years, none of these languages were spoken in their respective countries and indeed none of these languages existed anywhere in the world. Where did they all come from?

 In some cases, the answer is clear and well-known. We know that Spanish is simply a later version of the Latin language that was spoken in Rome two thousand years ago. Latin spread with the Roman conquest of Europe and, following the breakup of the Roman Empire, the regional dialects of Latin gradually evolved into the modern Romance languages: Sardinian, Rumanian, Italian, French, Catalan, Spanish, and Portuguese. A language family, such as the Romance family, is a group of languages that have all evolved from a single earlier language, in this case Latin.

 But while the Romance family illustrates well the concept of a language family, it is also highly unusual in that the ancestral language - Latin - was a written language that has left us copious records. The usual situation is that the ancestral language was not a written language and the only evidence we have are its modern descendants. Yet even without written records, it is not difficult to distinguish language families. Similarities among certain languages in the word for "hand" allow us to readily identify not only the Romance family (Spanish, Italian, Rumanian), but also the Slavic family (Russian, Polish, Serbo-Croatian) and the Germanic family (English, Danish, German). There are, however, no written records of the languages ancestral to the Germanic or Slavic languages, so these two languages - which must have existed no less than Latin - are called Proto-Germanic and Proto-Slavic, respectively. 

If we examine words other than "hand," we find many additional instances where each of these three families is characterized by different-looking roots, just as in the case of "hand." But we also find, from time to time, roots that seem to be shared by these three families; that is, the same root is found in all three families. What is the meaning of such roots? In fact, similarities among language families such as Romance, Germanic, and Slavic have the same meaning as similarities among languages in any one family - they imply that these three families are branches of an even more ancient family. In other words, a language that existed long before Latin, Proto-Germanic, or Proto-Slavic first differentiated into these three languages and then they, in turn, diversified into the modern languages of each family. This larger, more ancient family is known as the Indo-European family and it includes almost all European languages (but not Basque, Hungarian, or Finnish), and many other languages of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. 

The Language Families of the World chart shows that the Indo-European family has, in fact, thirteen branches; in addition to Romance, Germanic, and Slavic; there are also Baltic, Celtic, Iranian, Indic, Tocharian, Anatolian, and three single languages that are by themselves separate branches of the family: Armenian, Greek, and Albanian.The thirteen branches of IndoEuropean are connected to one another by numerous words and grammatical endings. Let's take a look at some examples of this now.The Exploratorium. "The Evolution of Languages." 1999. http://www.exploratorium.edu/exploring/language/language_article3.html (August 10, 2001)

Platypus

The platypus is one of the two animals in the order Monotremata. It is the only member of the mammal family Ornithorhynchidae. Platypus is from the Greek platys meaning “broad” and “pous” meaning foot, referring to the animal's webbed foot. 

The platypus has several reptilian characteristics which include using the same opening for reproduction and eliminating waste products, the ability to lay eggs, cervical ribs, and local ascorbic acid synthesis in the kidney. Even though the platypus has these reptile characteristics, it is overall much more mammalian than reptilian. This unique animal has a lifespan of 10 to 15 years. 

The platypus is about the size of a household cat. The male platypus's body is about 50 - 60 centimeters long and the female is about 40 - 50 centimeters long. An adult male platypus weighs about 2 kilograms and a female platypus weighs about .9 kilograms. The platypus has a thick covering of waterproof hair all over its body except for the feet and bill. The outer hair is a dark brown with yellowish hair on its underside. There are about 800 hairs per square millimeter. This is denser than the fur of the river otter or polar bear. The platypus has two layers of hair. The top or longer layer is a shiny guard fur with a woolly short fur undercoat. The thermal qualities of the fur allow the platypus to withstand cold temperatures. 

The platypus's sensitive, pliable bill is a blue-gray, blackish color with the two nostril holes near the tip. The location of the nostrils allows the platypus to breath while the rest of the body remains under the water surface. The lower bill is smaller than the upper bill. The lower bill is held in place by two elongated dentary bones which is found in all mammals. The bill contains an electro-receptor system which has approximately 850,000 electrical and tactile receptors. When the platypus goes underwater or drives for food, it closes its ears, eyes, and nostrils. Its electro-receptor system detects the electric currents created by the muscle activity of small prey and may even help the platypus detect the electric field created when water flows over prey hidden under rocks, mud, and small debris. As the platypus gathers food in its mouth, it moves the food to its cheek pouches. When it returns to the surface, it pushes the food from its cheek pouches up to its mouth. It then grinds it with its grinding pads. 

The ear openings or grooves are on either side of the platypus's head. The platypus does not have external ears. These openings are closed when diving or swimming under water. Out of the water, these ear openings are very sensitive to sounds. The small, beady eyes are very sensitive to movement. Cone cells have been found in the retina. This indicates the possibility of color vision for the platypus. Its eyes are well placed for scanning river banks. 

The platypus has four legs which extend horizontally from its body. This arrangement makes it walk on land with a shuffle like a lizard. The front feet have large webs of skin which help to propel the platypus through the water.

 Meteorites

 Meteors are small particles of matter in the solar system that are only directly observable when they fall into the earth’s atmosphere. A meteorite is a meteor that reaches the surface of the earth without being vaporized. Meteorites are particularly valuable geologic specimens because they represent samples of planetary bodies (mostly asteroids) which we have not yet obtained through either manned or unmanned space missions. Neither is it likely that samples of these bodies will be available by any other means than fortuitous falls for at least a generation. Thus, as a scientific resource, meteorites provide us with some of our first glimpses of the diverse array of planetary material scattered throughout the inner solar system. 

The oldest meteorite specimens are remnants of the very first geologic processes to occur in our solar system 4.6 billion years ago. (The origin of the solar system should not be confused with the origin of the universe, commonly known as the Big Bang, which occurred at least 9 billion years ago and possibly as long ago as 20 billion years.) Our solar system formed when a cloud of interstellar dust and gas collapsed. Because the interstellar cloud had been slowly spinning, the result was a nearly flat rotating disk which we refer to as the solar nebula. Much of the dust and gas in the disk moved to the center of the nebula where it fed a growing protostar which eventually became our sun. 

The dust and gas remaining in the nebula was incorporated into primitive planetary material. Initially, nebular dust stuck together (or accreted) to form small, loosely-bound dustballs. In some regions of the solar nebula these dustballs encountered violent, high-temperature events and were melted, forming molten silicate and metal droplets (like lava). Henry Clifton Sorby, a geologist of the 1800's and one of the first to examine these droplets with a microscope, described them as having once looked like fiery rain. Because the high-temperature events were brief, the molten droplets cooled quickly in the nebula and formed millimeter-sized spheres of rock called chondrules. Meteorites containing these objects are called chondrites. 

Sometimes the temperatures rose so high in the solar nebula that dust began to evaporate, leaving behind refractory residues. At other times, the temperatures became so low that new dust condensed from the nebular gas (like snow from the air). Over time, chondrules, evaporative residues, and condensates collided with each other and accreted to form nebular sediments and eventually larger bodies called planetesimals (a few to several tens of kilometers in diameter). Our most primitive meteorite specimens are samples of these complex, yet primitive, mixtures of nebular (pre-planetary) material. In many cases these meteorites are so primitive they contain traces of interstellar dust which survived thermal processing in the solar nebula 

The small planetary bodies from which primitive meteorites come formed throughout a large portion of the inner solar system. Within these vast distances material was apparently distributed unevenly and affected by different amounts of thermal processing. Thus, meteoritic parent bodies produced in different regions of the solar nebula had slightly different chemical and structural properties. The three principal groups of primitive chondrites representing these variations are the carbonaceous chondrites, enstatite chondrites, and unequilibrated ordinary chondrites. 

Nocturnal animal, the bat

Good afternoon. In this lecture, we’ll focus on a common nocturnal animal, the bat. There are two types of bat: micro bats, or true bats, and mega bats, also called fruit bats. Let’s start with mega bats. Size wise, mega bats are from two to sixteen inches in length. Mega bats have extremely sensitive sight and smell. This helps them locate the flowers and fruit upon which they feed. It is while eating that mega bats play a important role in the distribution of plants. Like bees, mega bats serve as pollinators. When they lick nectar or eat flowers, their bodies become covered in pollen which they, in turn, carry to other trees and plants thereby acting as pollinators. In fact, many of the fruits and vegetables on our tables, such as bananas and peaches, would not be there if mega bats did not pollinate plants and trees. Next are micro bats. As the name implies, micro bats are quite small, about the size of a mouse. To find food, micro bats use echolocation, high frequency sounds they bounce off insects. The most common micro bat is the vesper or evening bat. Like mega bats, micro bats play an important role in the environment. The average vesper bat, for example, can eat one thousand mosquitoes in one night. By doing so, they control the mosquito population.

A: So, Joan, your roommate told me that you had a meeting with Dean Metzger this morning. B: Well, actually it's later this afternoon. I'm meeting her at 4:00 today. Well, I'm sure you've been hearing and reading about the cuts and the university budget, right? Well, the budget for the university debate team was really slashed. In fact, it was cut more than in half and it was already a bare bones budget. To tell you the truth. I don't know if. Well, I don't really think we'll be able to keep debating. Really. So how do you what does the debate team spend its money on? The coaches salary or no? As a matter of fact, my friend Kurt Wyndham is our coach and he volunteers his time. Curtsy graduate student now, but when he was an undergrad he was a debater himself. So then, how do you spend your money? Well, mostly we spend it on travel expenses. We take four or five trips of semester to other campuses and we need money for bus fares or gas money, hotel rooms, meals, things like that. Well, I I kind of hate to say this, but would it really be the end of the world if the debate team couldn't keep going? I mean, does anyone really? Care all that much about debate? The people on the team do. Most of us have been debating since high school and it's really important to us. And you know, it can be really good career preparation. You learn research skills, you learn well to communicate, to think on your feet. You learn teamwork. My father's a lawyer, you know, and when he was in college, he went to college over in England he was involved in. Debate. And he says it was a wonderful way to train for the courtroom. He's the one who talked me into joining the team. Well, I'm just saying, except for a few people on the team, how does having a debate team really benefit the university? Oh, don't even get me started. For one thing, there's the whole matter of school tradition. I mean, did you know that this school has had a debating team for over 100 years, and over the years we've won a dozen or more regional tournaments and a couple of national tournaments? Then there's the prestige we haven't had a good football or basketball team for. For years. But our debate team is always one of the best in the region. A good debate team attracts people who debated in high school, and they're always some of the top students. And you know, a lot of famous people are on college debate teams. President John F Kennedy, for one. And OK, OK, you've sold me. And we're not even asking for that much. It's like a a millionth of what the school spends on football and basketball. I mean, I don't have anything against sports teams, but still, I can't see why you're going to talk to Dean Metzger. She's, she's Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences. She's not in charge of the university budget. No, I know, you're right. And we tried to get an appointment with President Fisher, but his assistant kept saying he was too busy right now and wasn't able to meet with us. So Kurt came up with the idea of talking to Dean Metzger. He said Dean Metzger's fair. She has that reputation anyway, and she's, you know, willing to listen. So I don't know, maybe if we can convince her. Then she can persuade President Fisher and the board of Chancellors not to cut our budget so much. Well, if anyone can convince her, you can. I'll tell you, though, if I were you, I'd keep trying to get a meeting with President Fisher. Talking to Dean Metzger won't hurt, but really, President Fisher is the person whose mind you have to change.